Article on Learning and Retrieval
- In the 2nd experiment: they used concept mapping. Students did better on initial learning, but they had poorer long-term memory.
- Why might retrieval be better for long-term?
- Authors say: for elaboration, they enrich the number of encoded features, but thats not what you need when you are tested. You need retrieval cues. "So retrieval practice enhances may improve cue diagnosticity by restricting the set of candidates specified by a cue".
- aka - a cue doesn't lead you to 15 different options, but something specific.
- Cognitive Psychology: the scientific study of thinking; how people process information; perception, learning, remembering, reasoning, decision-making.
- Dialectic: Thesis, antithesis, synthesis => integrating the best parts of opposing views.
- Empiricism: Know through the senses, evidence through experience; how we know.
- Rationalism: reasoning process is how we get to knowledge; logical.
- A synthesis of the two: base empirical observation on theory, and use observation to revise the theory.
- structuralism: tried to look at the parts that make up the brain, looking at specific processes (Wundt and Titchener).
- Introspection: major element: a self analysis, looking inward at the contents of your consciousness.
- Functionalism: focused more on the processes of thought than the structure (Wiliam James - Pragmatism and John Dewey).
- Herbert Simon: Major advocate of thinking aloud protocols as a means of studying cognitive processing (like introspection of structuralism).
- Associationism: memory and knowledge come from our associations between things (empiricism). Things that are similar to each other (later than functionalism).
- Ebbinghaus (1886) and Thorndike (1905)
- Behaviorism: observe reactions to stimuli and that is all that matters. Stimuli and responses are the source of your data.
- Pavlov was around the same time as Thorndike.
- Behaviorism dismisses introspection and mental processes. (Only lasted a couple of decades)
- John Watson: father of behaviorism (1878-1958)
- B.F. Skinner: important to behaviorism too
- Operant conditioning - rewards and punishment
- Critiques of Behaviorism
- Tolman: believed behavior was goal-directed, not just driven by stimuli. Representations in the mind. (1930-1940)
- Bandura: animals or people may learn socially, such as observing others and imitating them without doing it themselves.
- Gestalt Psychology: (in Europe) same time as behaviorism.
- Emphasized perception and problem solving.
- How associationism became behaviorism?
- behaviorism focuses on observable behavior
- associationism was important between the stimulus and the response
- Gestalt Psychology emphasized the organization of the whole; studied insightful problem solving
- Koehler did insight studies
- So what happened to behaviorism?
- It didn't really survive.
- 1950's language was an important issue: kids learn to say things, and they create novel sentenes that they have never actually been rewarded for (Chomsky's critique of behaviorism).
- This shows the natural tendencies in mind and brain, not stimulus driven. Minds are inherently linguistic and grammatical.
- Steven Pinker also important in language.
- Artificial Intelligence emerged (1956) and Gave rise to cognitive science (that is, how info is represented and manipulated).
- "tuning test" of AI- if you can't tell the difference between the output and an actual human.
- Newell and Simon: showed computers could solve very complex problems... can model human intelligence.
- Jerry Fodor: modularity (special-purpose system)-> acting independently.
- Ulric Neisser-> Cognitive revolution in psychology
- 1970-Neuroscience was coming about, recently its more a part of Psychology, not just cellular.
- fMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging: Can show what parts are active during a certain task (but can't show a causal relationship).
- TMS: transcranial magnetic stimulus.
- tDCS: transcranial direct current stimulation: mild stimulation.
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